Legendary Commanders Who Challenged Ancient Rome: The Lives and Legacies of Hannibal, Spartacus, and Attila the Hun

*Includes pictures *Includes ancient accounts of the leaders and battles *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading In the history of war, only a select few men always make the list of greatest generals. Napoleon. Caesar. Alexander. They are always joined by Hannibal, who has the distinction of being the only man who nearly brought Rome to its knees before its decline almost 700 years later. Rome never suffered a more horrifying defeat in its history than at Cannae, and indeed, Hannibal nearly rewrote the course of Western history during the Second Punic War. Even today there remains great debate on just how he accomplished his masterful invasion of Italy across the Alps. Since his army included war elephants, historians still argue over exactly where and how he crossed over 2,000 years after he managed that incredible feat. Hannibal will always be listed among history’s greatest generals, and his military campaign in Italy during the Second Punic War will always be studied, but part of the aura and mystique surrounding the Carthaginian legend is that there is still a lot of mystery. Since Carthage was destroyed by Rome a generation after Hannibal, most of what is known about Hannibal came from the very people he tormented in the late 2nd century B.C., and thus much of his background and life story is unknown. Moreover, while military historians are still amazed that he was able to maintain his army in Italy near Rome for nearly 15 years, scholars are still puzzled over some of his decisions, including why he never attempted to march on Rome in the first place. Spartacus is the world’s most famous slave, and one of the most notorious figures of Ancient Rome. A slave enamored of freedom and willing to fight and die for it, he became especially popular in the years following the Enlightenment, after which he was widely viewed as a poignant champion of liberty in the 18th and 19th centuries. As a result, he became a symbol during struggles like the French Revolution, the American Revolution, the American Civil War and the struggle for emancipation. The reason for Spartacus’s enduring appeal is obvious. Firstly, he was a gladiator, a profession so violently spectacular that to this days it remains one of the most popular and fascinating aspects of ancient Rome – as testified by the popularity of such productions as Gladiator and the endless queues of tourist outside the ruins of the Colosseum. Secondly, he was a man who, at least on the surface, fought for freedom – not just his but that of every slave in his region of Italy – and he did so almost two millennia before slavery was officially abolished in the United States. Attila, Emperor of the Hunnic Empire and thus most commonly known as Attila the Hun, is an idiosyncratic figure who has become more myth than man, not least because much of his life is shrouded in mystery. Perhaps the most famous “barbarian” in history, Attila was the lord of a vast empire spanning two continents, but he is best remembered for what he did not conquer. Though he seemingly had Rome at his mercy in 452, he ultimately decided not to sack the Eternal City, and a year later he had suffered a mysterious death. Naturally, the dearth of information and the passage of time have allowed myths and legends to fill in the most important details of Attila’s life. Why did a man at war with the Roman Empire for so long decide not to sack Rome in 452? Did a meeting with Pope Leo the Great convince him to spare the capital of the Western half of the empire? Did a vision from St. Peter induce Attila to convert to Christianity? Was Attila murdered by his new bride? Many authors and chroniclers have provided many answers to the many questions, but the lack of answers has allowed Atilla to become the face of ancient barbarity and the embodiment of the furious nomadic conqueror.