The Essential Human Anatomy Compendium

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Contents

1 Introduction to Anatomy of the Human Body.............................................................12 The Cell..............................................................................................83 Tissues...............................................................................................15PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1: The Cell and Tissues..............................................................22ANSWER SHEET for PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1...................................................................274 The Integumentary System..............................................................................295 The Skeletal System I: Skeletal Tissues and Skeletal Structure........................................386 The Skeletal System II: The Axial Skeleton............................................................487 The Skeletal System III: The Appendicular Skeleton....................................................638 The Skeletal System IV: Articulations (Joints)........................................................77PRACTICE QUESTIONS 2: The Skeletal System...............................................................86ANSWER SHEET for PRACTICE QUESTIONS 2...................................................................939 The Muscular System I: Skeletal Muscle Tissue and Muscle Organization.................................9510 The Muscular System II: Major Muscles of the Axial Skeleton..........................................10911 The Muscular System III: Major Muscles of the Appendicular Skeleton..................................119PRACTICE QUESTIONS 3: The Muscular System...............................................................140ANSWER SHEET for PRACTICE QUESTIONS 3...................................................................14512 The Nervous System I: Nervous Tissue.................................................................14713 The Nervous System II: The Central Nervous System....................................................15314 The Nervous System III: The Peripheral Nervous System................................................17615 The Nervous System IV: The Autonomic Division of the Nervous System..................................19016 The Nervous System V: The General and Special Senses.................................................20017 The Endocrine System.................................................................................214PRACTICE QUESTIONS 4: The Nervous and Endocrine Systems.................................................222ANSWER SHEET for PRACTICE QUESTIONS 4...................................................................22718 The Cardiovascular System I: Blood...................................................................22919 The Cardiovascular System II: The Heart..............................................................24220 The Cardiovascular System III: Blood Vessels and Circulation.........................................25021 The Lymphoid (Lymph and Immune) System...............................................................265PRACTICE QUESTIONS 5: The Cardiovascular and Lymphoid Systems...........................................272ANSWER SHEET for PRACTICE QUESTIONS 5...................................................................27722 The Respiratory System...............................................................................27923 The Digestive System.................................................................................28924 The Urinary System...................................................................................30525 The Reproductive System..............................................................................317PRACTICE QUESTIONS 6: The Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive Systems.....................334ANSWER SHEET for PRACTICE QUESTIONS 6...................................................................339APPENDIX A: Recommended References......................................................................341APPENDIX B: Answers to Practice Questions...............................................................342

Chapter One

ANATOMY (also called morphology - the science of form) is the study of internal and external structures of the human body. Given that specific structures perform specific functions, therefore, structure determines function.

The BRANCHES of ANATOMY include:

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY (fine anatomy) - the study of body structures that cannot be viewed without magnification; includes cytology (the study of cells) and histology (the study of tissues)

GROSS ANATOMY (macroscopic anatomy) - the study of body structures which are visible without the aid of magnification; subclasses include surface anatomy (the study of shapes and markings on the body surface), regional anatomy (the study of all structures in a single body region, superficial or deep) and systemic anatomy (the study of all organs with related functions, i.e. study one organ system at a time)

DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY - the study of structural changes that occur from conception to physical maturity; its subclass is embryology (the study of structural formation and development before birth)

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY - the study of the anatomy of different types of animals

PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY - the study of structural changes in cells tissues, and organs caused by disease

RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY - the study of internal body structures by using noninvasive imaging techniques, such as X-ray imaging and ultrasound

SURGICAL ANATOMY - the study of anatomical landmarks, which are important to surgical procedures

A. LEVELS of STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION of the human body (microscopic to macroscopic):

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL: atoms (building blocks of matter) combine to form small molecules (such as water and carbon dioxide) and larger macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids); i.e., Chemicals (molecules) comprise the entire body.

2. CELLULAR LEVEL: cells are comprised of molecules; they are the smallest living units in the body; cellular organelles are their functional subunits.

3. TISSUE LEVEL: similar types of cells, with a common function, combine to form tissues; four primary tissue types comprise all organs of the human body.

4. ORGAN LEVEL: more than one tissue type (often all four tissues) combine to form organs; extremely complex physiological processes occur at this level.

5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL: organs that work closely together combine to form an organ system, to accomplish a common purpose; there are 11 organ systems of the human body.

6. HUMAN ORGANISM (or organismal level): the highest level of structural organization; this is the combination of all the organ systems functioning together to sustain the life of the organism.

B. The HUMAN BODY'S 11 ORGAN SYSTEMS:

1. Integumentary System - forms the cutaneous membrane (epidermis and dermis), the external body covering; provides protection and thermoregulation; synthesizes vitamin D; provides cutaneous reception through sensory receptors; additional accessory structures are hair follicles, nails, sweat (sudoriferous) glands and oil (sebaceous) glands

2. SkeletalSystem - provides protection and support to the body organs; provides skeletal framework for the muscles to attach, hence, causing movement; stores minerals; blood cell formation occurs within bones

3. Muscular System - produces motion; maintains posture by providing support; produces heat

4. Nervous System - control center of the body, which directs immediate responses to stimuli and coordinates the other organ systems; i.e. responds to internal and external stimuli by activating appropriate muscles and glands

5. Endocrine System - comprised of glands, which secrete hormones that regulate processes (such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction) of the other organ systems

6. Cardiovascular System - comprised of the heart, blood vessels, and blood to transport materials (such as respiratory gases, nutrients and wastes) within the body

7. Lymphoid (Lymphatic and Immune) System - comprised of the lymphatic vessels, lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, the thymus, and the spleen), lymphocytes, and lymphoid tissue; returns leaked fluid to blood; provides defense against pathogens and disease by housing white bloods cells (lymphocytes) that function in immunity

8. Respiratory System - comprised of the nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the lungs; maintains the blood's constant supply of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide by delivering air to the lungs where gas exchange occurs at the alveoli (air sacs of the lungs)

9. Digestive System - comprised of the gastrointestinal tract (or alimentary canal) and accessory structures, which together function to process food and absorb nutrients

10. Urinary System - comprised of the kidneys, ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra; functions to eliminate excess water, salts, and nitrogenous wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood

11. Reproductive System - comprised of gonads (testes in the male; ovaries in the female), accessory organs and external genitalia; overall function is to produce sex cells and hormones for the purpose of producing offspring; the female reproductive system supports embryonic development

C. ANATOMICAL POSITION: AXIAL vs. APPENDICULAR REGIONS

In anatomical position, the person is standing upright, arms at sides, palms facing forward (little fingers are medial, touching the thighs), feet flat on the floor, face straight ahead.

The AXIAL REGION consists of the head, neck and torso.

The APPENDICULAR REGION consists of the upper and lower limbs (or extremities).

D. ORIENTATION and DIRECTIONAL TERMS:

SUPERIOR (cranial or cephalic) - above the point of reference; toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body

INFERIOR (caudal) - below the point of reference; toward the tail end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body

ANTERIOR (ventral) - toward or at the front of the body; in front of; (the front or belly side)

POSTERIOR (dorsal) - toward or at the back of the body; behind; (the back side) (n.b. anterior/ dorsal and posterior/ventral are interchangeable in humans only, not so in four-footed animals in which dorsal is superior and ventral is inferior)

MEDIAL - toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of (e.g. The trachea is medial to the arm.)

LATERAL - away from the midline of the body; toward the sides or on the outer sides of (e.g. The ears are lateral to the nose.)

PROXIMAL - closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk (e.g. The shoulders are proximal to the elbows.)

DISTAL - away from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk (e.g. The fingers are distal to the wrist.)

SUPERFICIAL (external) - closer to or at the body surface (e.g. The skin is superficial to the heart.)

DEEP (internal) - farther from or away from the body surface; more internal (e.g. The lungs are deep to the skin.)

IPSILATERAL - on the same side (e.g. The right arm and right leg are ipsilateral.)

CONTRALATERAL - on opposite sides (e.g. The right arm and left leg are contralateral.)

E. REGIONAL TERMS (names of specific body parts)

The following is a list of the most commonly used anatomical terms.

Anatomical NAME (Anatomical REGION) - Common Term:

CEPHALON (cephalic) - area of the head

CERVICIS (cervical) - neck region

THORACIS (thoracic) - chest region

BRACHIUM (brachial) - upper arm

ANTEBRACHIUM (antebrachial) - forearm

CARPUS (carpal) - wrist

MANUS (manual) - hand

POLLICIS (pollex) - thumb

ABDOMEN (abdominal) - abdominal region

UMBILICUS (umbilical) - navel or bellybutton

PELVIS (pelvic) - pelvic region

PUBIS (pubic) - anterior pelvis or genital region

INGUEN (inguinal) - groin

LUMBUS (lumbar) - lower back

GLUTEUS (gluteal) - buttock region

FEMUR (femoral) - thigh

PATELLA (patellar) - kneecap

CRUS (crural) - anterior leg, from knee to ankle

SURA (sural) - posterior, calf of leg

TARSUS (tarsal) - ankle PES (pedal) - foot (pedals of a bike)

PLANTA (plantar) - the bottom of the foot, sole

HALLUCIS (hallux) - great toe or big toe

F. BODY PLANES

FRONTAL (CORONAL) plane - lies vertically and divides the body into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (back) portion

TRANSVERSE (HORIZONTAL) plane - lies horizontally and divides the body into a superior (top) portion and an inferior (lower) portion. These sections are also called cross sections.

SAGITTAL plane - lies vertically and divides the body into a right portion and a left portion. If the sagittal plane lies exactly in the midline and the portions are equivalent, it is called a MIDSAGITTAL PLANE, or MEDIAN PLANE; all other sagittal planes (that are offset from the midline and result in unequal portions) are called PARASAGITTAL PLANES.

G. BODY CAVITIES and MEMBRANES

1. DORSAL body cavity

a. Cranial cavity - lies within skull (cranium), encasing the brain

b. Spinal cavity - lies within the vertebral column, enclosing the spinal cord

2. VENTRAL body cavity (COELOM) - provides protection, allows organ movement, lining prevents friction

a. The THORACIC cavity - superior to diaphragm, contains heart, lungs, blood vessels; surrounded by the ribs and the muscles of the chest wall

* PLEURAL CAVITIES - right and left cavities, which enclose the right and left lungs

parietal pleura (the thin membrane that lines the chest walls) of the serous membrane

visceral pleura (the thin membrane that adheres to the lungs) of the serous membrane

serous fluid fills the pleural cavity between the layers of the serous membrane

* MEDIASTINAL CAVITY or MEDIASTINUM - a central cavity containing a band of organs, which lies between the pleural cavities; contains the heart (enclosed by the pericardial cavity), esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels PERICARDIAL CAVITY - contains the heart

parietal pericardium (the thin membrane that lines the pericardial walls) of the serous membrane

visceral pericardium (the thin membrane that adheres to the heart surface) of the serous membrane

serous fluid fills the pericardial cavity between the layers of the serous membrane

b. The ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY - lies inferior to the diaphragm and is divided into a superior part and an inferior part

* ABDOMINAL cavity - the superior part, which contains the liver, stomach, small intestine, spleen, kidneys, and other organs; extends from diaphragm superiorly to superior border of sacrum

Many organs in the abdominopelvic cavity are surrounded by a peritoneal cavity.

peritoneum - serous membrane

parietal peritoneum (the thin membrane that lines the wall) of the serous membrane

visceral peritoneum (the thin membrane that adheres to the abdominopelvic organs) of the serous membrane

Note that the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ureters are retroperitoneal because they are located behind the abdominopelvic cavity.

* PELVIC cavity - the inferior part, which is enclosed by the bony pelvis; contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum

peritoneum is continuous with that of the abdominal cavity

H. The four abdominopelvic quadrants (more general method of localizing the visceral organs) delineate the abdominopelvic cavity into four segments by drawing one horizontal plane and one vertical plane through the umbilicus.

* Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

* Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

* Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

* Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

I. The nine abdominopelvic regions (used by clinicians to map the visceral organs) are created by two transverse planes and two parasagittal planes, forming a "tic-tac-toe" grid.

* UMBILICAL region - the center square

* HYPOCHONDRIAC regions (right and left) - superior lateral regions

* EPIGASTRIC region - medial and superior to the umbilical region

* LUMBAR regions (right and left) - middle lateral regions

* HYPOGASTRIC region - medial and inferior to the umbilical region

* INGUINAL (ILIAC) regions (right and left) - inferior lateral regions

ADDITIONAL ANATOMICAL TERMS:

Absorption: the route through which substances (only very small molecules) can enter the body, dependent upon catabolic reactions

Adaptability: long-term responsiveness

Adaptation: the change in living organisms that allow them to live successfully in an environment

Differentiation: the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type

Excretion: the process of removing metabolic waste products and other useless materials

Growth: refers to an increase in some quantity over time, often due to an increase in the size and/or number of individual cells

Metabolism: the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life

Anabolism refers to the construction of molecules, via metabolic pathways, from smaller units.

Catabolism refers to the breakdown of molecules, via metabolic pathways, into smaller units, consequently releasing energy.

Reproduction: the process through which new individual organisms are produced; therefore, it is essential to the continuity of life.

Supine: The patient is lying down with the face up.

Prone: The patient is lying down with the face down.

Responsiveness: the ability of an organism to change activity or functioning, based upon the application of a stimulus; also referred to as irritability

Chapter Two

INTRODUCTION

All living organisms are composed of cells, the basic structural and functional units of life.

CELL THEORY:

Cells are the basic unit of structure in all living things.

New cells are formed/produced from other pre-existing cells, via division.

Cells are the fundamental units of structure that perform all vital functions.

Two main types of cells in the body:

SOMATIC CELLS - body cells

SEX CELLS - reproductive cells or germ cells

Cellular Diversity - the trillions of cells in the human body are made up of 200 different cell types that vary greatly in size, shape and function.

Cytology: the study of the cell's structure and function

Light Microscopy (LM) - uses light to magnify and view cellular structures up to 2000x their natural size

Electron Microscopy (EM) - uses electrons to magnify and view cell ultrastructures up to 2 million times their natural size

The 3 main parts of the cell: 1) Plasmalemma (plasma or cell membrane), 2) cytoplasm, 3) nucleus

(Continues...)

Excerpted from The Essential Human Anatomy Compendiumby H.P. Doyle Copyright © 2009 by H.P. Doyle. Excerpted by permission.
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